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HOW

AND

WHY

UJorvdk/LBoo&ofr

[d Why Wonder

THE HOW AND WHY WONDER BOOK OF

Illustrated by CYNTHIA ILIFF KOEHLER

and ALVIN KOEHLER
Editorial Production: DONALD D. WOLF

Text and illustrations approved by

Oakes A. White, Brooklyn Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, New York

GROSSET & DUNLAP* Publishers* NEW YORK

Introduction

Throughout the ages trees have inspired poets, provided themes for stories of fact
and fiction, and served mankind in thousands of inspirational and practical ways. This
How and Why Wonder Book of Trees clearly relates why these important plants have
played such an essential part in the history of mankind.

Trees seem to have a special meaning for people everywhere. Who cannot think of
a tree that has a special meaning or evokes a fond memory? Whether you think of trees
as beautiful or ugly, helpful or bothersome, they are above all useful. They help us
directly by providing food and shelter in hundreds of ways. In another hundred ways,
they help us indirectly. They are homes for birds, beauty spots for recreational areas,
and the source of endless lists of products from paper to pine tar.

To the scientist, trees are a source of information on how all plants live and grow.
How does the basic life-giving chlorophyll help plants manufacture food? How do
materials get from the soil and air into plants? How do the different parts of plants do
their work? These are all questions for research — enough questions to keep scientists
busy for a long time.

A walk in the woods or along a new street invariably brings out the question, “What
kind of tree is that?” It’s fun to be able to answer with the correct name of the tree.
This How and Why Wonder Book of Trees provides descriptions that will be helpful in
identifying many of the common trees in the United States. For those wishing to add to
their collection of botany books, this will be a useful reference for home and school
libraries.

Paul E. Blackwood

Dr. Blackwood is a professional employee in the U. S. Office of Education.
This book was edited by him in his private capacity and no official support or
endorsement by the Office of Education is intended or should be inferred.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-86061

ISBN: 0-448-05053-6 (WONDER EDITION)
ISBN: 0-448-04052-2 (TRADE EDITION)
ISBN: 0-448-03852-8 (LIBRARY EDITION)

1976 Printing

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.

Contents

THE FOREST

HARDWOODS AND EVERGREENS
How many kinds of trees are there?
Where do trees grow?

Why do leaves fall?

Do trees sleep in winter?

What kind of trees grow in
the jungle?

How do trees prevent erosion?

What is soil made of?

How can forests be saved?

How did trees get their
common names?

The Parts of a Tree and Their
Functions

How does a tree begin?

How are seeds distributed?

Why do branches grow sideways?
Why does a tree have roots?

Does a tree have a nervous system?
How does a tree pump water?

How does a tree feed itself?

Why do leaves change color?

How does a tree breathe?

Why does a tree have bark?

The Age of Trees

How does a tree show its age?

What are the oldest trees?

Enemies and Diseases
What are a tree’s enemies?

What are the insect enemies?

What are the diseases of trees?

TREES OF THE AMERICAN
WOODS

What did the settlers find?

The Evergreens
White pine
Norway pine
Long-leaf pine
Lodge-pole pine
Douglas fir
Balsam fir
Spruce
Hemlock
Cedar
Juniper
Larch

Bald Cypress 29

The Hardwoods 30

Oak 30

Live oak 30

Maple 30

Locust 3 1

Willow 31

Sycamore 3 1

Sweet gum 31

Magnolia 32

Tulip 32

Flowering dogwood 32

Ash 34

Black gum 34

Sassafras 34

The Fruit Trees 35

Apple 35

Cherries, peaches, and pears 35

Persimmon 35

Citrus fruits 35

Avocado 37

The Nut Trees 37

Walnuts and Hickories 37

Butternut 38

Pecan 38

Cashew 38

Brazil nut 38

Horsechestnut 38

Beech 39

TREES OF THE TROPICS 40

Coconut palm 42

Date palm 42

Banana 42

Breadfruit 42

Traveler’s tree 43

Baobab 43

Rubber tree 43

Sapodilla 43

Coffee tree 43

Tea tree 43

THE MEDICINE TREES 44

Witch-hazel 44

Cascara buckthorn 45

Curare 45

SOME HISTORIC TREES 46

SCRUB PINE

2 YR. OLD RIPE CONE

EGG CELLS
IN OVULES

POLLEN SACS

TYPICAL NEEDLES AND
CONE OF AN EVERGREEN

GINKGO

{A LIVING FOSSIL)

LEAVES

1 YR. OLD
CONES

LEAVES

WITH SMOOTH EDGES
(REDBUD)

The pollen of the male tree fertilizes the
eggs in the ovules. The ovules are pro-
duced on scales of female cones.

LEAVES WITH TOOTHED EDGES
(HOP-HORNBEAM)

PALMATE^ COMPOUND
(HORoECHESTNUT)

SIMPLE LEAF
(MAPLE)

BARK OF
SYCAMORE

ALTERNATE

(ELM)

LEAVES

WITH LOBED EDGES
(SASSAFRAS)

PINNATELY COMPOUND
(BLACK LOCUST)

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Everyone has seen trees. They are our largest plants.
But do you know how to identify the kind of tree you
are looking at? Trees differ in shape, leaves, bark,
flowers and seeds. These are the things you have to
learn to recognize.

There are two main groups of trees: 1. CONIFERS
(evergreens). Various kinds of needles and cones are
found on conifers. 2. BROAD-LEAVED TREES. Their
leaves differ in size, type of edge, color, vein pat-
terns, texture and arrangement on the stem. A simple
leaf has only one leaf on a stem; a compound leaf
has many leaflets on one stem. Some leaves grow
opposite each other on the stem; others alternate,
and some whorl. The veins of leaves have different
arrangements that will help you distinguish the
species or family of the tree.

BARK OF SWEET CHERRY

BARK OF HONEY LOCUST

FLOWER OF TULIP TREE

FLOWERS

PETAL

WHORLED

(CATALPA)

STIGMA

STYLE

ANTHER

STAMEN

OVARY

FILAMENT

OPPOSITE

(MAPLE)

SEPAL

SEEDS AND FRUITS

PAVLONIA

SYCAMORE

HAWTHORN

DOUGLAS FIR

MAGNOLIA

PISTIL

The Forest

When the first white settlers came to
North America, they found the land
covered with thick forests that stretched
far into the interior. Henry Hudson,
who explored New York harbor and the
Hudson River, described Manhattan
as a heavily wooded island which con-
tained an abundance of wildlife. The
Indians of Manhattan had two sources
of food: animals from the woods and
fish from the sea. Today, Manhattan is
the center of New York City, and its
woods are covered with concrete, brick,
and asphalt.

Henry Hudson and others who ex-
plored the New World marvelled at the
very tall, straight trees that would make
excellent masts for ships. They had
sailed from the lands of western Europe,
where forests had already been heavily
cut at the time of Columbus. Oak and
other hardwoods had been sliced into
timber for ships and houses. Many for-
ests had been cut down to clear the land
for farming.

In the New World, the forests had
grown freely, untouched by saw or axe

for thousands of years. Thick growths
of oak, hickory, maple, ash, and other
trees reached almost to the shoreline.
The white settlers found themselves
with the ocean in back of them and for-
ests in front. They learned to hunt deer,
bear, turkeys, and other animals that
lived in the forest. Wild nut trees and
grapevines grew in abundance. But in
winter much of the game disappeared,
along with other sources of food. Star-
vation was common in many pioneer
settlements.

To survive the winter, colonists had
to clear the land for farming. This
meant felling trees. The wood was used
to build cabins or it was burned for
heat, but most of the virgin timber was
stacked and burned to remove it from
the land. In time, larger and larger
tracts of land were stripped of their for-
est cover to provide space for farms,
cities, and roads. Few of these virgin
forests escaped. Much of the hardwood
forests that once covered the eastern
part of North America no longer exist.

Trees, shrubs and vines are all woody
plants, but there is a recognizable dif-
ference between the three: a tree has
a definite trunk and grows, with few
exceptions, 10 feet high or taller. A
shrub is less than 10 feet high and has
many stems rather than a single trunk.
A vine has a weak stem and no crown
like that of a tree.

Hardwoods and Evergreens

BANYAN TREE

are there?

Although there are many thousands of

different kinds of

How many kinds , . ,

, , trees growing in the

of trees ® °

forested areas of
our earth, all true
trees are separated into two basic classi-
fications. There are softwoods, some-
times called “evergreens” or “narrow
leaved,” and there are hardwoods,
also known as “deciduous” or “broad
leaved.” The hardwoods are flowering
plants and the softwoods are cone-
bearers.

The softwoods are the pines, firs, and
other evergreens that usually have nar-
row needles instead of broad leaves.
The term “evergreen” comes from the
fact that the needles appear not to turn
brown and fall to the ground at the
approach of winter. Of course, the ever-
greens do shed their needles. But they
do it so slowly that there are always
green needles on the trees. As a general
rule, the wood of the pine or fir is softer
than that of broad-leaved trees such as
the oak or hickory. So evergreens are
also called softwoods.

The hardwoods comprise all other
true trees — such as the oak, the hick-
ory, the chestnut — that have broad
leaves instead of needles. The word

JAPANESE DWARF TREE

“deciduous” means that the leaves fall
off the tree when autumn comes.

There are exceptions to most rules
about trees, and here are two. The larch,
a true needle-bearing softwood, sheds
all its needles every fall, just as the hard-
woods do. And in tropical climates,
hardwood trees keep their leaves all
year round because there are long hours
of daylight to prevent leaves from with-
ering. They are called broadleaf ever-
greens.

Climate and soil determine which spe-
cies of trees comprise a
forest. In the far north,
only pine, fir, spruce,
and other conebearing evergreens can

Where do
trees grow?

The banyan tree , originally
from India, the strangler
fig and the Japanese dwarf
tree are all true trees, even
if they are the exceptions
in some way to the defini-
tion.

STRANGLER FIG ON ITS VICTIM, A
CABBAGE PALM

survive the long, freezing winters. Such
coniferous (conebearing) forests are lo-
cated in the northern parts of Canada,
Europe, and Asia.

Just south of this broad belt of ever-
greens, in the temperate zone, are the
mixed forests where coniferous species
compete with deciduous species for a
place in the sun. Pine and hemlock can
be found growing with maple and oak.
Over the years, the climate of the north-
ern hemisphere has shown a slight
warming trend, and coniferous forests
have withdrawn even farther north-
ward. They are being replaced by the
broadleaf oak, ash, maple, and elm.

By shedding their leaves each fall, the
deciduous species can survive extreme
conditions found in the temperate zone:
cold, wet winters and hot, dry summers.
In summer, their leaves are reservoirs
of water, some of which evaporates into
the air. This loss of water from the
leaves forces the tree to draw up more
water from the roots. When the leaves
fall off, the moisture left in the roots,
trunk, and branches is preserved.

At one time it was thought that the drop

Wh do * n tem P erature during

i y t no autumn caused leaves to

leaves fall? . „

wither and tall. Then
scientists discovered that the falling of
leaves was related to light. The shorter
periods of daylight affect a special layer
of cells at the base of each leaf where it
joins the twig from which it grows. In
the fall, as the days grow shorter, this
cell layer weakens and the leaf turns
brown and drops off the tree. If a tree
is kept warm in a greenhouse, it will still
lose its leaves in the fall. But if a tree is

electrically lighted to simulate the sum-
mer hours of daylight, it will keep its
leaves, even at low temperatures.

Do trees sleep
in winter?

A tree that has shed its leaves is said
to be dormant, or
“asleep.” Its roots
continue to grow be-
neath the soil, using food it stored dur-
ing the summer. On its branches buds
develop into tiny replicas of leaves and
flowers. Each bud has its own store of
food and is covered with tough scales
that protect the tender embryo leaves
against loss of water. A few warm days
and longer periods of daylight cause the
buds to open and develop. If there is a
hint of spring, the buds may break out
of dormancy, only to be killed when
normal winter cold resumes.

Many plants need a period of dor-
mancy before they can continue normal
growth. One type of peach tree does
not develop unless it has a proper cold-
warm cycle. It will flourish in the north-
eastern United States where freezing
winters and hot summers prevail. But it
does not grow in sunny California or
Florida where winter temperatures re-
main high. On the other hand, a Cali-
fornia peach tree planted in the North-
east may break dormancy at the first
breath of spring, only to be killed by a
late frost.

The tropical forests, sometimes called
... . rain forests or jungles,

, . follow the equator

trees grow in ^

the jungle? around the globe.

They cover large
parts of South America, the center of
Africa, and portions of India, Asia, and

Australia. Due to their position near
the equator, tropical forests are assured
ample rain, long hours of daylight, and
constant warmth. Consequently, these
rain forests are composed of broadleaf
evergreens which do not shed their
leaves. Teak, mahogany, ebony, and
other tropical trees grow throughout the
year in such warm, humid climate.

In lush tropical forests, plants com-
pete for sunlight, with the tallest trees
getting the greatest amount. Beneath
the tallest trees grow two or three layers
of shorter trees that can survive with
little or no sunlight. The vegetation in
each layer harbors a variety of animals
that have adapted to life above the for-
est floor.

Taller trees support many climbing
plants which attach themselves and
work their way up from the forest floor
to the sun-bathed treetops. The stran-
gler fig belongs to a group of plants that
begins growth high up in a tree, without
contact with the soil. The seedling of the
strangler fig may begin its growth in the
fork of a branch or in the crevice of a tree
trunk. It draws moisture and nutrients
from bits of decaying vegetation that
have also fallen onto the tree. Some of its
roots curl around a branch for support,
while one long root grows directly
downward. When this long dangling
root takes hold on the forest floor, the
strangler fig grows rapidly. It sends
more roots down to the forest floor,
while developing leaves near the tree-
top. The network of roots thickens and
surrounds the trunk of the host tree,
killing it. The host tree eventually rots
away, leaving the hollow strangler fig
standing on its own roots.

In a forest, the roots of trees form a

.. , network of under-
flow do trees , , t , , „

prevent erosion? § roun ca es
that holds the earth

together. If the trees are cut, their roots
rot and the soil loses its ability to an-
chor. When large areas of forest are cut
indiscriminately, the soil loses it$ pro-
tection against erosion — the wearing
away of the earth by rain and wind.

When a rainstorm breaks over a for-
est, raindrops strike the leaves and drip
gently to the forest floor. If there are no
trees, the drops strike the ground with
sufficient impact to loosen and scatter
tiny particles of soil, which are washed
away. The soil-laden water forms rivu-
lets and streams that cut deep gullies
in the rootless ground. In the United
States, half a million tons of soil are lost
every year from areas where trees have
been stripped from the land they once
protected against erosion.

What is soil
made of?

Trees create soil in which other plants
can grow. Leaves and
twigs that fall on the
forest floor decay to
form humus, a rich soil composed of
rotting vegetation. Humus is soft and
spongy. It not only breaks the force of
the raindrops, but also absorbs large
amounts of water. Lakes that are used
as reservoirs for the water supply of
towns and cities are often surrounded
by a forest of planted trees. They bind
the soil and hold the moisture around
the reservoir, so that it always holds an
ample supply of clear water.

When a forest is cut down, the soil
loses its source of decaying leaves. The
soft, resilient humus disappears and

may be replaced by grasses. Or it may
turn into fine, loose, dry soil which is
blown away by the wind or washed
away by the rains.

Plants grow best in a layer of soil that
is a mixture of sandy minerals and hu-
mus. The soil should be fairly loose so
that plant roots can spread without dif-
ficulty. This layer of soil is called topsoil.
On the Great Plains of the Midwestern
United States, topsoil may be several
hundred feet deep. In the arctic, on high
mountains, or in the desert where there
is little vegetation, the topsoil may be
only a few inches thick.

Large tree roots hold the soil more
firmly than the small, shallow roots of
grass and farm plants. A treeless pasture
may lose an inch of topsoil to erosion
each year. A wooded area keeps all its
topsoil, despite the abrasive forces of
wind and rain. During a long drought,
when crops fail and wither, the thin top-
soil dries into a fine sand that is blown
by the wind. The result is dust storms
which sweep through regions where
farm crops once grew. Today, the aver-
age thickness of topsoil in the United
States is six inches. Four hundred years
ago, it was twice as thick. The reason
for this loss of soil is the destruction of
forests.

With careful planning, a forest can be

, harvested in such a

How can forests , , ,

be saved? that enou « h

trees are left stand-
ing to reseed the area. It is also possible
to plant seedlings by hand or by ma-
chine, or to scatter seeds from a heli-
copter. If there is no reseeding, the soil
washes away and vegetation cannot take

hold. A once proud forest turns into a
barren desert.

In California, where over a million
acres of giant redwoods have been ruth-
lessly cut down, the stripped land has
become a source of violent floods. The
absorbent layers of humus that once
covered the forest floor are gone. Rain-
storms create torrents of water that rush
down rain-carved gullies, causing creeks
and rivers to flood. Soil, houses, and
roads are washed away by the deluge.
Without trees to absorb water and bind
the soil, every rainfall threatens to turn
into a rampaging flood.

In an uncut forest, mature trees scat-
ter their seeds on the forest floor and
new seedlings of the same species sprout.
But even when a clearing is cut in a for-
est, the same species of trees will be
recreated in that clearing under the right
conditions. The recreation of a forest
proceeds in several steps: First, weeds
take hold among the stumps, followed
by shrubs, followed by species of trees
that thrive in the open sun. The seed-
lings of these trees in the clearing sprout
from the forest floor, but the next gen-
eration of seedlings fails to grow be-
cause of the shade created by the parent
trees. Seeds blown by the wind or car-
ried by birds into the now shady clearing
may represent many different species.
But only those seeds that can survive in
the shade will flourish. In time, perhaps
several hundred years, the species that
grew up in the clearing will crowd out
all other trees, and a stable or “climax”
forest will again cover the land.

The United States can be divided into five distinct
regions, each dominated by certain characteristic
species of trees:

1 . The west coast and redwood forests, with red-
wood, Douglas fir , Engelman spruce, western red
cedar, Joshua tree, Ponderosa pine, California
laurel. 2. The western forests, with quaking aspen,
western juniper, western larch, lodge-pole pine,
Colorado blue spruce, pihon pine. 3. The northern
forests, with black cottonwood, gray birch , moun-
tain ash, bur oak, balsam fir, sugar maple. 4. The
central and southern hardwood forests, with beech,
tulip tree, elm, hemlock and shagbark hickory. 5.
The southern forests, with American holly, live oak,
Sabal palmetto, black gum and bald cypress.

COTTONWOOD

TASSELS

How did trees
get their
common

Trees have always been so common-
place to man that,
for the most part,

names? the y have been
named for com-
monplace things. We all know the fa-
miliar trees that are named for the fruits
or nuts they bear — apple, peach, pear,
plum, orange, walnut, chestnut, pecan.
Less well-known to most of us, perhaps,
are the trees whose names came from
the characteristics of their bark.

In the springtime, you can slip the
bark off a slippery elm with only the
pressure of your hand. Underneath is a
sticky, gummy substance that is sweet to
the taste, and is in fact used as a sooth-
ing ingredient in some cough medicines.

The bark of the shagbark hickory is
so scaly and shaggy that it looks like
the warped and weatherbeaten shingled
roof of an old abandoned barn. The
bark of the paper birch peels off in white
sheets as thin as writing paper; that of
the tanbark oak is used for tanning
leather; and the bark of the toothache
tree tastes so hot and peppery that, in

pioneer days, it was chewed to relieve
toothache.

Some trees are named for the color
of their leaves or wood — the copper
beech, the red oak, the blue ash, the
white pine, the black spruce, to name
only a very few. Sometimes this naming
process is reversed. If we say that a
thing is ebony in color, we mean that it
is as black as the wood of the ebony
tree; or if we say it is mahogany, we
mean as dark brown as the wood of the
mahogany.

A few trees derive their names from
the place in which they are most likely
to be found — the water oak, the river
birch, the mountain hemlock, the west-
ern larch. Some are named for the quali-
ties of their saps or resins — the sugar
maple, the sweet gum, the pitch pine,
the sourwood.

The pignut tree is a type of hickory
which bears small, thin-shelled nuts that
are relished by pigs. The cottonwood
sheds soft cotton-like tassels that cover
the ground beneath it with a white car-
pet. The sharp twigs of the pin oak were

PAPER BIRCH
BARK

WEEPING

WILLOW

PIN OAK
TWIG

(v:-

TANBARK

OAK

sometimes used as wooden pins to take
the place of nails in pioneer houses. The
fever tree, of Africa, grows in low,
swampy places that are usually un-
healthy for human habitation.

The teardrop-shaped leaves of the
trembling aspen quiver and shake in
even the slightest breath of a breeze,
so that the whole tree seems to be in
constant motion. The thin branches of
the weeping willow droop sadly to the
ground as though in mourning.

Now and then, trees were named for
men. The giant sequoia, largest and old-
est of all trees, honors the great Indian
chief, Sequoya; David Douglas gave his
name to the great Douglas fir of our
Pacific Northwest; and the magnolia

was named for the French botanist, P.
Magnol, who first transported seedlings
from Louisiana to France.

To avoid confusion and to assure the
possibility that someone in America
knows what tree someone in France, for
instance, is talking about, scientists
have given trees Latin names, that are
the same the world over.

THE PARTS OF A TREE
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A single tree may produce several hun-
dred thousands of
seeds every year. The
seeds of conifers are
contained in the cones that hang sus-

How does a
tree begin?

SEEDLINGS

NORWAY

MAPLE

PEACH

CATALPA

HONEY

LOCUST

CHERRY

HORSECHESTNUT

SEEDS AND SEEDCASES

■

irf, " Growing Treat at a Crop,
forett Product t Industries Inc.

PISTILL ATE

Flowers

COTTON-

WOOD

TASSELS

STAMINATE

FLOWERS

•LEAVES

Make food for the tree by
combining carbon dioxide
from the air and water from
the soil in the presence of
sunlight.

SEEDS

Tree seeds vary from 27 per
pound (buckeye) to 300,000
per pound (redwood). When
conditions are right, seeds
sprout and begin to grow.

HEARTWOOD

SEEDLING

Core of inactive cells, for-
merly sapwood, which gives
the tree strength and dura-
bility.

SAPWOOD

Sap rises through the cells
from roots to crown. Food for
seed production and for new
tree growth is also stored
here.

RED CEDAR

CAMBIUM

Layer of cells which divide
and grow to produce a new
layer of bark and wood be-
tween the old bark and wood
each year.

INNER BARK

BLACK OAK
SAPLING

HEMLOCK

Food made in leaves moves
down through these cells to
branches, trunk and roots for
growth and storage.

OUTER BARK

Protects trees from weather,
insects, disease, fire and ani-
mals.

MOUNTAIN MAPLE

ANNUAL RINGS,

Reveal age of tree.

By forming new cells under
the bark and at the tips of the
branches and roots, a tree
grows ib diameter, height and
extent of root system each
year.

GROWTH REGIONS

ROOTS

WATER

Support the tree by penetrat-
ing the soil. Hold soil in place
and conduct water and miner-
als to trunk.

ROOT HAIRS ^

Absorb water and dissolve
minerals from the soil.

ARBOR VITAE

Birds are the most prolific seed distributors.

PAVLONIA

pended from their branches. Birches,
willows and poplars produce their seeds
on slender tassels. Apples and oranges
contain several seeds inside each piece
of fruit; peaches and plums have only
one. The seeds of nut trees are the
nuts themselves. Trees like basswood,
cherry, and mountain ash bear seeds in
berries; the locusts produce bean-like
seeds in heavy pods. Each of these
seeds contains all the essential elements
needed to produce a baby tree. But usu-
ally less than one in a million survives
to maturity.

To begin with, birds and insects eat
most of the seeds while they are still on
the tree. Squirrels and chipmunks live
on the seeds of nut trees. Most of the
remaining seeds fall on barren or rocky
ground that is not favorable to their
growth.

But since Nature distributes the seeds
of trees with such a lavish hand, a few
seeds out of all these millions manage to
germinate and put out tiny roots. Then
little leaves break through the ground
and the young tree begins to grow. Yet
even now, the odds are several thousand
to one that it will ever develop into a
full-sized tree.

The little sprouts crowd each other

out in their fight for sunlight and for
nourishment from the soil. Only the
hardiest survive. And this ruthless com-
petition keeps up even after many years
of growth. The bigger trees overshadow
the smaller ones and cut off their sun-
light, and the smaller ones die. It has
been estimated that in a single acre of
natural pine woods, something like
5,000 trees die after they are twenty
years old. When trees are planted by
commercial growers, they are placed so
that there is little or no such competi-
tion for life-giving sunlight.

The wind is the greatest scatterer of

seeds. The taller the

How are seeds , . . , .

parent tree, the bet-

distributed? ,

ter chance its seeds
have for survival. Some seeds, notably
the maple, are equipped with wings that
spin like the blades of a helicopter. In
a brisk breeze they can sail for several
hundred yards from their parent tree
and come to rest on new ground.

Birds are the most prolific seed dis-
tributors. After making a meal from the
seeds of a tree, they scatter a few of
them in their droppings over an area
many miles wide. Deer often perform
the same service when they eat wind-
fallen apples. Squirrels frequently carry
acorns to a hiding place, eventually for-
get about them, and the acorns take
root and grow to become mighty oaks.

The most dramatic carriers of seeds

mulberries

CHESTNUT

J p-W-n

BLACK CHERRY

are the currents of the sea. Every coral
island in the Pacific is fringed with
groves of towering palms, which origi-
nally grew from coconuts that floated
from the larger islands and the main-
lands.

Why do branches
grow sideways?

Regardless of how you place a seed in

the ground when
you plant it, part
of the tree will
grow downward into the earth to extract
chemicals and water and the other part
will grow upward into the air and sun-
light.

The roots spread out in such a way
as to find the most ground water. In the
same manner, the branches grow side-
ways, all around the tree, in order to
expose the maximum area of leaf sur-
face to the sun.

At places where branches grow out
from the trunk or from larger limbs,
the tree’s wood must be heavier and
stronger to support the extra weight.
This creates a knot in the tree, which
we so often see as a swirl-like design in
finished lumber.

The roots of a tree serve a double pur-
pose. First, they pro-
vide a firm foundation
that anchors the tree
securely to the earth.
Their second function is to absorb mois-
ture from the ground and send it up-

Why does a
tree have
roots?

ward through tiny tubes, or veins, to the
topmost branches and leaves.

On the average, the underground
root spread of a tree is about one-tenth
of the spread of its branches. In some
species, particularly the oak, the root
spread and branch spread may be nearly
equal. The combined length of all the
roots in a giant oak tree may total more
than one hundred miles!

There are two kinds of roots : surface
roots and tap roots. The tap root is an
extension of the trunk that bores deep
into the ground. The surface roots ex-
tend out on every side. All roots are
covered with “hairs,” as you can see for
yourself, if you pull up a small seedling
in the woods. From the soil, these
“hairs” constantly absorb water mixed
with a small quantity of nitrogen and
other minerals in solution, and feed it
to the body of the tree.

Tree roots also perform a valuable
service to man. They bind the soil to-
gether and thus prevent it from washing
away during heavy rainfalls. Moreover,
they absorb vast quantities of water
which, in a sustained downpour, might
cascade down the slopes and carry off
precious topsoil. A thickly-wooded river
basin is good insurance against destruc-
tive floods and soil erosion.

In one respect, the roots of a tree
behave in a way that appears to be con-
trary to most natural laws. They thrive
best in soil that is poor and lacking in
moisture. For this reason, they have to
spread out farther and farther in order
to collect enough water to feed the tree.

Seedling with roots,
rootlets, root hair.

' \ f ■-€-/

ROOT HAIR

ROOTLETS

ROOT

Winter tree bud: What will amount to a 1 0" or 1
is condensed into that small bud, of which you s

( growth, including flowers,
cross section at the left.

FLOWER

HORSECHESTNUT

YOUNG CONES
OF NORWAY SPRUCE

You all have seen hardwood
trees in bloom, but did you ever
look at the beauty and colors of
young cones?

FLOWERING MAGNOLIA

Under such circumstances, root tips be-
have almost as though they could think.
Unerringly, they search out the pockets
of soil most likely to contain moisture.
If the root comes to a stone, it grows
around it, and then continues on its
determined path.

Because of this peculiar behavior of root

tips seeking water,

Does a tree have ,, . . t

, . the great natural-

a nervous system? ®

ist, Charles Dar-
win, suggested that a tree had the power
to direct the movements of its parts in
much the same manner as the brain of
a lower animal such as the earthworm.
Modern botanists know that a tree has
no true nervous system; yet the leaves
and branches, as well as the roots, re-
spond to outside stimuli. Leaves tend
to follow the sun in order to get as much
light as possible. If a small tree has
sprung up in the partial shade of a
larger one, its branches try to extend
themselves toward the sunny side.

Trees have a complete circulation sys-
tem, just as the

How does a , , , ,

x human body has.

tree pump water? J

Their sap acts in
much the same way as blood. It flows
up through veins from the roots to even
the highest leaf, and then back down
again to complete the circuit. The tree
itself acts as a gigantic suction pump. A
part of the water that reaches the leaves
is evaporated by the air and sunlight.
As the water in the leaves evaporates,
it pulls on the water molecules nearest
to it; they, in turn, pull on other water
molecules, and so on, down to the very
roots. Rain water cannot enter the pores

of the leaves through which the tree’s
sap-water escapes. It can be absorbed
by the tree only through the roots.

The water that does not evaporate
through the leaves runs back down
through the wood and bark of the tree.
This is the true sap, and because it has
picked up elements from the wood
through which it has passed, it has more
body than the water that is sucked up-
ward. Thus, such saps as those of the

maple or rubber tree are relatively thick

J, T‘\ > ^T§WL'JTj^

and heavy.

A tree creates food for itsel

How does a
tree feed
itself?

amazi

process kno 1
tosynthesis.^El
derives from f^o

Greek words — photos, meaning “U
and synthesis, meaning “putti;
gether.” We are all familiar with su^l
“synthetic” fabrics as rayon and nylpii.\
Chemists create them by putting to-
gether different kinds of molecules and
thus creating new atoms that become an
entirely different substance. Basically,
a tree does the same thing to make its
own food. Stated in its simplest form,
this is how photosynthesis works.

Whereas animals inhale oxygen, a
tree, like all plants, primarily inhales
carbon dioxide. The tree breaks this
down into component elements of car-
bon and oxygen. At the same time, it
breaks down the water that comes from
the roots into hydrogen and oxygen.
Then chlorophyll, the mysterious sub-
stance that makes leaves and grass
green, acts as a chemical agent. Using
sunlight as energy, it combines the mole-
cules of the water and carbon dioxide,

VEIN PRINT
OF
OAK LEAF

and forms them into sugar, which is the
food upon which the tree lives and
grows. The process stops at night, when
there is no sun.

Scientists have tried to duplicate the
chemical processes that make the “leaf-
factory” work, but without success.

Why do leaves
change color?

We have seen that chlorophyll is the
magic substance that
makes a leaf green.
In cold weather,
while the tree sleeps, the chlorophyll is
not needed for its work of changing
air and water into food-sugar. As the
chlorophyll fades and the leaf begins
to die slowly, other pigments become
dominant and the leaf changes its color
to yellows, reds and browns. Then,
when the leaf is completely dead, it
drops to the ground.

When the tree “wakes up” in the
spring and begins to grow again, the
new leaves are once more filled with
green, life-giving chlorophyll.

Although a tree sucks in life-giving air

through its bark and
How does a , , .

. . x , . branches and every

tree breathe? ",

other part, its chief
“lungs” are its leaves. Each individual
leaf is covered by a thin skin, and in this
skin, on the underside of the leaf, are
numerous tiny pores, called stomata.
Through these minuscule stomata, the
tree breathes in air and gives off the
excess water vapor that is pumped up
from the roots.

A tree is constantly inhaling air and
exhaling moisture. This outflow of
water vapor through the stomata of the
leaves makes a large forest area moist
and cool on a hot summer afternoon. A

very large tree, such as an ancient oak,
which may have more than half-a-mil-
lion leaves, will discharge over 300 gal-
lons of water into the air each day!

Why does a
tree have bark?

The bark of a tree serves much the same

purpose as the skin
of our bodies. The
outside of the bark
is thick and tough, and protects the
growing parts of the trunk from insects,
fungi, and other enemies.

The inner layers of the bark provide
channels for food-sugar to flow down-
ward from the leaves and furnish nour-
ishment for the tree. Sometimes it also
serves as a storage space for this food.

Since a tree grows in size by adding
a layer of new wood to its circumference
each year, the inner bark is constantly
expanding to accommodate the growing
trunk. The outer bark, being more or
less dead, cannot expand. Instead it
cracks and scales off, just as does the
cuticle of the outer layer of human skin.

The outer bark of some big trees,
such as the sequoia, may be as much as
two feet thick. Extremely rich in tannic
acids, it provides perfect protection
against boring insects.

Cross section through leaf.

STOMATA
(TAKES IN AIR)

SPONGY CELLS EPIDERMIS

MESOPHYLL
(MAKES SUGAR)

SCAR FROM LIGHTNING

DRY SEASON

Annual rings indicate growth (nor-
mally one ring per year). Width of
the rings varies from year to year
with the climate. Dry seasons pro-
duce narrow rings; wet seasons,
broad rings. Based on this knowl-
edge, one can not only approxi-
mate the age of the tree, but can
also draw conclusions about the
weather and other natural phenom-
ena that influenced growth.

WET SEASON

THE AGE OF TREES

If you look at a cross section of a tree

trunk, you will see that

How does a , , ,

* . it is marked by a series

tree show .

its age? of concentric rings.

Roughly, these rings
telkthe tree’s age. Each growing sea-
son, a tree adds a layer of new wood to
its girth. During the cold months, when
the sap ceases to flow, growth is tempo-
rarily halted and the tree rests. Thus the
rings are clearly marked. By counting
the rings, an expert can arrive at a rea-
sonably accurate estimate of the tree’s
age.

When a tree trunk is sawed up into
lengths of lumber, the pattern of the
rings forms the “grain” of the wood.

The growth rings of very old trees
can also tell us much about weather
conditions in long-ago times. In periods
of great drought, the rings do not grow

as thick as in seasons when rainfall is
plentiful. From that fact, scientific his-
torians can piece together many secrets
of the long-dead past. One of the most
dramatic instances of this tree-ring his-
tory-book concerns the ancient cliff
dwellers of southern Colorado.

About two thousand years ago, the
cliff-dwelling Indians built villages high
up on the sheer sides of canyon walls.
In those days, the countryside of that
part of Colorado was considerably
greener than it is now, with sufficient
rainfall to make agriculture possible.
The Indians cultivated thriving farms
on the tops of the mesas above their
cliff towns. They also pastured their
flocks of turkeys and goats there.

Then, in about the year 1276, more
than two centuries before Columbus
landed on the shores of the New World,
a devastating drought struck the area.
The crops withered and died. Grass

SEQUOIA

REDWOOD

Left, big tree. Below, needles and cones of se-
quoia. Above, cones and needles from redwood,

dried up, and the wild game left the
country. Springs went dry, and the
rivers that had cut out the canyons
ceased to flow.

This period of drought and famine
lasted for twenty-four years, and during
this interval, the Indians abandoned
their cliffside homes and migrated to
new and more hospitable lands.

How can scientists be so sure of these
dates and events? By a careful study of
the growth rings of the ancient trees that
survived!

REDWOOD

TREE

The oldest living things on earth are also
— as would seem
natural — the biggest.
These are the giant
redwood and sequoia trees of California.

What are the
oldest trees?

Of the two, the redwoods are the taller
— the loftiest specimen towering 368
feet into the sky. The sequoias are not
as tall as the redwoods, but they are
bulkier. The famous General Sherman
tree is 27 3 feet high and 115 feet in girth,
it is the largest living organism on the
face of the earth.

The General Sherman began life as a
seedling more than 3,500 years ago.
Hundreds of other sequoias — some no
more than fifteen or twenty feet in cir-
cumference — are from one to two
thousand years old.

In Muir Woods, a carefully tended
grove of giant redwoods only a few
miles north of San Francisco, a cross
sectional slab of an ancient tree is on
display. The rings are marked to date

important historical events. One marked
ring indicates the size of the tree at the
time of the birth of Christ; others date
the Norman Conquest of England in
1066, the landing of Columbus, the
Revolutionary War. In the ring growths
of this single tree, visitors can see the
whole record of almost all recorded
history.

It must not be supposed that the big
trees of California are “living fossils.”
They are growing just as healthily in
California forests today as they did
3,500 years ago. What might be called
“baby” sequoias, perhaps 100 years old,
are often not much bigger than ordinary
Christmas Trees. In such parks as Muir
Woods, you can buy tiny seedlings that
could grow to become giant adults
sometime in the 22nd century!

There is only one tree on record that
authentically predates the sequoia and
giant redwood in time. This was a
specimen of bristlecone Pine that was
discovered in California’s White Moun-
tains only a few years ago.

The ancient relic was short, gnarled,
twisted and stunted. At the time it was
cut by botanists in 1956, only a very

small part of its trunk was still alive.
This tree began its life on a stony
mountain slope some 4,500 years ago.
Throughout all its long existence, it was
subjected to wintry blizzards, extreme
periods of freezing cold, and short
growing seasons. That it survived at all
is a miracle. Scientists are now trying to
determine whether or not other speci-
mens of the bristlecone may approxi-
mate this weatherbeaten veteran in age.

But even though they may have to
take second place to some bristlecone
pines for old-age honors, the giant red-
woods and sequoias will always reign
as the undisputed monarchs of the
world’s forests — just as they have for
the past 35 centuries!

ENEMIES AND DISEASES

From the time a seed falls from a tree,
its struggle for life
is a constant battle
with the elements.
We know that for every million seeds
that fall, perhaps only one germinates
and has a chance to grow. Then the
little seedlings crowd each other out,

What are a
tree’s enemies?

TREE ENEMIES

DISEASES

GRAZING

vying for a place in the sun. Even after
they have secured a firm foothold on
life, most of the smaller trees are over-
shadowed and eventually killed by the
bigger ones.

Aside from the constant competition
for sunlight, winds, fire, and floods are
the trees’ most dangerous natural ene-
mies. Many an old tree that has begun
to rot with age finally goes down in
a severe windstorm that younger,
healthier trees can survive. And in fierce
gales of hurricane intensity, thousands
of young and vigorous trees are up-
rooted and fall.

Fire is the most dramatic destroyer
of the forest. Most fires are caused by
lightning. But in recent years, with
more and more people driving through
forest preserves, many destructive fires

have been caused by careless campers
and smokers.

Only the big trees of California, like
the sequoias, seem to be nearly invul-
nerable to lightning. Most of the larger
ones have been struck time and time
again by lightning bolts, and bear the
visible scars of such encounters. But a
flash that would shatter even the mighti-
est of oaks, will be taken in stride and
shrugged off by the sequoia.

For the most part, these forest in-
sects do little or no permanent damage
to trees. But under certain circum-
stances, they can become killers. For
the sake of simplicity, we can divide
these potential killer-insects into five
general types.

The leaf chewers live on the leaves
of a growing tree and munch endlessly
as they crawl slowly along. Ordinarily,
they do no damage, for a healthy tree
produces many more leaves than it re-
quires for breathing or food-making. In
some seasons, however, unusual num-
bers of these insects make their appear-

What are the
insect enemies?

There are many thousands of kinds of
insects that live in
the forests and feed
upon the trees. Like
all of Nature’s creatures, these insects
play their part in the cycle of life. Some
carry pollen from one flowering plant
to another. Others eat the dead and
decaying wood that falls to the ground,
and thus keep the forest floors clean.
Most, in turn, are eaten by birds and
small animals — and in doing so pass
on the basic energy of life converted by
chlorophyll from the sun, air, and
water.

WOOD EATERS

TWIG BORERS

LEAF-CHEWERS

ance. When this happens, so much of
the total leaf area of a tree is eaten that
the tree literally starves to death. On
such occasions, in “bad insect years,”
whole forests have been wiped out.

The twig borers eat their way into
the twigs and smaller branches. By kill-
ing a large part of a young tree’s crown,
the general growth of the whole tree is
stunted. The afflicted tree is then over-
topped by neighboring trees, its source
of sunlight is cut off, and it dies.

The wood eaters, equipped by Nature
with strong jaws and mouths, tunnel
into the living fiber of the tree’s trunk.
Not only do they destroy the veins
through which the tree gets its life-giv-
ing sap, but they also weaken the tree
structurally so that it is more easily

Leaf-chewing insects are predominantly the larvae of
butterflies, moths, beetles and sawflies. One of the
most devastating is th’e spruce budworm, the cater-
pillar of a moth.

Twig-borers are practically all larvae of beetles, with
the pine weevil as a typical example.

Wood-eating insects, equipped with strong biting and
chewing mouth parts, are usually found in the beetle
group, both adults and larvae. One is the locust borer ,
the larva of a black and yellow longhorned beetle.
Sap-sucking insects are found among the aphids, ci-
cadas, tree-hoppers and spittlebugs. The largest of
them are fhe cicadas.

Seed-eating insects are the larvae of some species of
wasps, beetles and moths. We give the acorn weevil
as a typical example. (The adult drills a hole into the
seed and deposits the eggs.)

blown over and destroyed in a heavy
windstorm.

The sap suckers feed on the life blood
of the tree. As is the case with the leaf
chewers, they normally cause no per-

The leaf-mining insects, caterpillars of the leaf-miner
moths , are flat enough to tunnel through the leaf tis-
sues. Their trails look like some strange kind of writing
on the leaf. They are often smaller than a pinhead.

manent damage. But if exceptionally
large numbers appear in the forests in a
given season, they may drain the sap of
its vitality or even poison it. They may
also pass along disease from tree to tree,
and thus wipe out whole forest popula-
tions.

The seed eaters, like most other for-
est insects, rarely do great or lasting
damage. A tree produces seed in such
lavish plentitude that those eaten by
these little creatures are never missed in
Nature’s scheme of things. But again,
in certain years, the seed eaters appear
in such vast numbers that virtually the
whole seed crop of certain trees is de-
stroyed. This, of course, affects entire
forested areas by eliminating the new
growth of trees for a full season or more.

There are chiefly two kinds of tree

, diseases. One is

What are the . ,

,. , . _ caused by viruses

diseases of trees? J

that are small
primitive organisms that are generally

passed from tree to tree by insects like
the sap suckers. The other, the principal
cause of tree disease, are various kinds
of fungi. Fungus spores can be carried
from one tree to another by insects,
wind, water, or birds. Of the two, the
fungi are the more destructive to the
world’s forests.

Two of the most tragic of American
tree epidemics were visited upon the
American elm and the chestnut — seri-
ously threatening the existence of the
former and almost entirely wiping out
the latter.

The American elm was attacked by
both a virus and a fungus disease al-
most at the same time. Between the two
enemies, elms began to die at an alarm-
ing rate throughout almost all of the
eastern United States. Tree experts
rushed to the rescue of this fine old
American tree, and there is hope that
the disease may be checked before the
elm disappears entirely from the Ameri-
can scene as did the chestnut only a few
years before.

There was no such hope for the
chestnut. Attacked by a fungus, it was
practically wiped out before anything
could be done to save it.

Almost every grandparent will re-

member the luxuriant stands of chest-
nut trees that once dominated the
eastern United States. One of the fa-
vorite childhood sports of the 1920’s
was gathering great sackfuls of the
thorny fruits, pounding off the outer
burrs, and then roasting the sweet inner
nuts over a roaring fire. Then a rare
fungus disease was accidentally intro-
duced from Asia, and within the space
of a year or two, the lordly chestnut
trees withered and died. Nothing was
left of them but dead trunks that soon
toppled over and mingled their remains
with the forest floors.

But, happily, the chestnut seems to be
refusing to die altogether. Sometimes,
when you are walking through the
woods, you will see new chestnut
shoots growing out of a long-dead
stump. The deadly fungus is still pres-
ent in our forests, and continues to
attack the young shoots as they bravely
spring up and try to grow. But perhaps,
in time, enough of them will develop an
immunity to the disease so that once
again we will have healthy chestnut
trees. Perhaps your children will be able
to go into the woods on a “chestnut
hunt” just as your grandparents did.

PITCH PINE

HICKORY

Trees of the American Woods

When the first settlers came to America

from Europe, the coun-
Whaf did the , t ,
settlers find? try they found was coy-
ered with a vast green

forest of virgin trees. In most places
these woods were all but impenetrable,
pierced only by narrow animal paths
and blazed Indian trails. The Indians
made little real use of the forest that

r '

v r

grew so profusely all around them
gathered dried, fallen twigs for
fires and huts. They peeled the thin,
waterproof bark from birch trees to
cover their canoes. They cut straight,
stout branches of ash, hickory, and
other tough, resilient woods for their
bows and arrows. They used the thin,
stringy root of the larch as thread. They
planted their small gardens of corn and
beans in natural clearings, or in areas
that had been burned out. But rarely
did they have occasion to cut down the
giant trees of the primeval forest.

With the coming of the white man to
America, however, the face of the
woods began slowly to change — never

In summer, the birch bark canoe was
the main means of transportation
for the Eastern Woodland Indians.

to return to its original glory. To the
settler, the, vast growth of trees was a
nuisance; and he got rid of them as
rapidly as he could.

•He cut down large areas of trees to
clear his fields, and burned the fallen
timber in great bonfires. He used the
trunks of smaller trees for his cabins,
and split it up into planks to make his
furniture. As the settlers moved west-
ward, the grand virgin forests disap-
peared behind them. Only a few
scattered groves of the original trees
were left standing in their wake.

Yet in the two of three centuries since
the white man invaded the American
woods and despoiled them of their mag-
nificent trees, much of the woodland has
come back in the form of second- or
third-growth timber. As you stroll
through segments of the American
woods today, here are some of the most
common — as well as the most beauti-
ful — trees that you will see.

THE EVERGREENS

Evergreens are the most numerous
trees north of the equator. Certainly
they are the most valuable from a com-
mercial standpoint — for building-mate-
rials, paper, and turpentine and other
resin products. Sometimes evergreens
make up great forest areas exclusively.
In other places, they are interspersed
with stands of hardwoods. In New Eng-
land, for example, evergreens are likely
to be found on the lower slopes of the
mountain ranges, hardwoods on the
heights of the ridges.

Speaking broadly, evergreens fall
into six general categories : pine, spruce,
fir, hemlock, cedar, and larch. Ever-
greens are called “conifers” because
they bear fruit in the form of cones,
which are comprised of thin wooden
disks laid one on top of the other. The
one exception to this is the cedar, most
types of which bear their seeds in ber-
ries instead of cones.

WHITE PINE

White pine is the giant timber tree
of the American Northeast and the
Great Lakes country. Growing straight
and strong to heights up to 100 feet, its
trunk was used as the masts and spars
of the famed New England sailing ships.
Its timber was so prized for building,
not only for house frames but also for
floors and paneling, that early lumber
companies cut it ruthlessly and all but
wiped it out. Like all of America’s tim-
ber resources, white pine is carefully
conserved today under U. S. Govern-
ment supervision.

SPRUCE

NORWAY PINE

Norway pine (also called red pine)
is found in about the same geographical
area as white pine, although isolated
forests of it grow as far south as north-
ern West Virginia. It, too, is extremely
valuable as a timber tree.

No one is quite sure how this native
American tree came to be given the
name “Norway.” Many people believe
that early settlers mistook it for a spe-
cies of spruce that grows in Norway.

LONG-LEAF PINE

Long-leaf pine is distinguished, and
easily recognizable, by its clusters of
extremely long needles that grow from

12 to 18 inches in length. It grows from
100 to 120 feet high in the southeastern
states from Virginia to northern Flo-
rida. Long-leaf is valued for its fine tim-
ber and, along with a very close relative,
slash pine, it is the principal source of
turpentine and pine tar. As you drive
along the highways in southern states,
you will see large forests of long-leaf
pine. Each tree has a small bucket
affixed under diagonal cuts in the bark
to catch the valuable sap.

LODGE-POLE PINE

Lodge-pole pine is a relatively small
species in a land of usually tall trees.
Its foliage is sparse, and so it grows in
stands where the individual trees are
fairly close together. For this reason,
the ground underneath these groves is
generally bare of anything but dead
branches and a brown carpet of fallen
needles. Western Indians used the
straight trunks of the smaller of these
trees as poles for their tepees and
lodges. Thus it was named “lodge-pole.”

Speaking broadly, ever-
greens fall into six gen-
eral categories: pine,
spruce, fir, hemlock,
cedar and larch.

DOUGLAS FIR

Douglas fir, sometimes called “Ore-
gon pine” by lumbermen, is the most
.valuable of all the timber trees in

America. Next to the giant redwood it
is the tallest of all trees, many big ones
towering more than 200 feet. Douglas
fir yields all sorts of building material
from plywood to construction timbers.
When the smaller trees are thinned out
of the forests to give the larger ones
more growing room, tens of thousands
are sold as Christmas trees.

CONE,

SCALES

FALLING

The balsam fir, a near relative that
grows in the northeast, is the favorite
Christmas tree of the eastern part of
the country. Its boughs are especially
springy and fragrant. Underneath the
bark of this big tree are little pools of
resin. Known as “Canada balsam,” this
resin is so pure that it is used for mount-
ing specimens in laboratories.

The third major source of Christmas
trees is the spruce. But far more impor-
tant from the economic point of view is

the fact that the several kinds of spruce
furnish most of our pulp-wood for paper
making. It has been estimated that more
than 100 acres of spruce forests must be
harvested to make enough paper for a
single edition of the New York Sunday
T imes alone. From such a figure as this,
it is easy to understand why the careful
“tree farming” of spruce is one of the
major projects of our government’s
Conservation Service.

Hemlock is a tall, graceful tree that
grows both in the Northeast and the
Northwest. Compared to the pines, its
wood is not much good for timber, and
so it was largely passed over by the
early lumbermen. As a result, many of
the original stands of this fine old tree
are intact today. Hemlock is hardy and
is easily transplanted. For this reason,'
small hemlocks are planted as decora-
tive hedges and can be easily kept
trimmed into shape.

#
fxk

CEDAR

Cedars are found in most of the en-
tire eastern half of the United States,
and can be quickly distinguished from
other evergreens. The needles are ex-
tremely short, and the foliage is so dense
and compressed together that the whole
tree looks like a solid object.

The cedar’s wood is a delicate shade
of red and delightfully aromatic. While
it smells good to humans, it is offensive
moths and they refuse to go near it.
5o cedar is used to make clothes chests
and as a lining for closets. A fragrant
oil, distilled from the wood and needles,
is distilled into an ingredient used in fur-
niture polish. The wood of the white
cedar is so water- and decay-resistant
that it is used for roofing-shingles and
fence posts.

Juniper is a type of cedar found
largely in the West, where it prospers in
arid, rocky, sandy soil. The tiny needles
exude a fragrant resin that fills the hot

JUNIP

desert air with a delightful perfume.
Juniper berries provide food for some
small types of wildlife.

Larch, sometimes called by its Indian
name “Tamarack,” is one of the few
conifers that sheds all its needles at the
approach of winter, leaving its long,
drooping branches bare and brown. Yet
even with the needles gone, the larch
still presents the symmetrical appear-
ance of an evergreen, and its small
cones do not drop when the leaves do.
Larches are usually found in low damp
places, but they grow almost equally
well on fairly

LARCH

Bald cypress is the big tree of the
southern swamps, where it grows in the
water. Unlike most swamp vegetation,
the cypress grows straight and tall, as
much as 100 feet high. At its base, the
trunk flares out like a bottle, Nature’s
way of lowering the tree’s center of
gravity so that the tall trunk will be
supported in the gummy swamp mud
and ooze.

Curious little conical projections,
called “knees,” — part of the cypress’s
root system — jut up out of the water
all around the base of the trunk, their
tips just above the water level. The pur-
pose of these “knees” is to provide ad-

ditional air to the roots. The roots of
ordinary trees would be able to get this
air from spaces in the loose soil around
them.

Like the larch, the cypress sheds its
leaves each fall, even though most of
them grow in Florida and along the
southern Gulf Coast where frosts only
rarely occur. And like the live oak,
whole forests of these swamp giants are
draped and festooned with decorative
streamers of moss.

THE HARDWOODS

The oak is perhaps the commonest
tree found in the American woods, and
there are more different kinds of oaks
growing in various parts of the country
than any other type of tree — white
oak, black oak, red oak, scarlet oak, pin
oak, scrub oak, and post oak to name
only a few. All of them are strong, solid
trees that usually grow to a great
size and live to a ripe old age. “Sturdy
as an oak” is a common descriptive

phrase used to denote exceptional
strength.

The leaves of oaks come in varied
shapes and sizes, but all oaks have one
thing in common: all bear acorns.
Whenever you see an acorn, you can be
sure that the tree is an oak, regardless
of how unfamiliar the leaves may seem.

One of the most magnificent of all
oaks is the live oak of our southern
states. It is so called because it does not
shed its leaves in the fall but keeps them
all year around. Another peculiarity
of the live oak is the profusion of Span-
ish moss that festoons its branches. This
Spanish moss is not a true moss at all
but an odd parasitic growth that, curi-
ously enough, is related to the pineapple
family. If any one tree characterizes the
Deep South, it is the moss-festooned live
oak.

The maple is generally considered to
be America’s most beautiful tree. Un-
like most other broad-leafed trees, its
branches grow in nearly perfect sym-
metry. In early fall, when its leaves
begin to tufn, it brightens the woods
with vivid splotches of red, yellow, and
orange. (See page 32.)

In addition to its beauty, the maple
is one of the most useful of trees. Its

finely grained wood has always been
highly prized by furniture makers; and
the syrup made from its sweet sap is an
American breakfast-table delicacy.

The willow often grows along river
banks or on the sides of ponds. Al-
though classified as a “hard wood” tree,
its wood is very soft and is rarely used
for lumber. While the trunk of an adult
willow is heavy and gnarled, its upper
branches are so light and thin that they
droop downward and sometimes break
off from their own weight.

It is most commonly used to make fence
posts and railroad ties. (See page 32.)

Although they vary slightly, the
leaves of the several kinds of maples
look similar, and easily identify the tree.
Common to all maples, too, are the
delicate winged seeds that sail through
the air like flights of tiny airplanes in the
early-summer breeze.

The locust took its name from a story

The twigs of a willow can perform

in the Bible. The New Testament tells the same function as its seeds. If \J

us that John the Baptist lived in the you put a willow twig in soft, damp

wilderness on locusts and wild honey. ground, it will take root and start put-
Even though it is true that many kinds ting out leaves. When you see a long line

of insects are eaten by the people of the of willows along a river, it is often be-

Near East, early Bible readers rebelled cause twigs have fallen off a parent tree,

at the idea of John actually enjoying a been carried downstream by the cur-

i locust diet. So they decided that what rent, and then taken root along the

he probably had eaten were the sweet bank. (See page 32.)

seeds of the carob tree. Therefore, they The sycamore, one of the stateliest
named a similar podbearing tree the of trees, grows to great heights. An old
locust. specimen often towers 100 feet or more.

The seeds of the honey locust, which The most notable feature of the syca-
are encased in long pods, are very sweet, more is its colorful, mottled bark which

and were eaten in pioneer days as mixes patches of gray, white, light

candy. These pods-, and the long multi- green, and light brown like the pattern

pie leaves, are the identification marks of a quilt. Botanists think the sycamore \ \/ X

of the locust. The wood of the black was the first hardwood tree to develop

locust is extremely hard and durable. on earth. (See page 33.)

The sycamore’s leaves look very
much like the maple’s, except that they
are larger and wider. The seeds are con-
tained in round balls about the size and
general appearance of golf balls. They
dangle down from the upper branches
as though tied on with strings. In some
parts of the country, sycamores are
called plane trees or buttonwoods.

The sweet gum, another tall tree of
the southern woods, often attains a

There are more different kinds of
oaks than any other type of tree.

LIVE OAK

stature of 100 feet or more. It has leaves
like five-pointed stars, seed-balls very
much like those of a sycamore, and its
thick bark exudes a heavy, sweet resin
that country children chew as chewing
gum. (See page 33.)

The magnolia is a lush and beautiful
flowering tree that is native to the
South. In its natural habitat, it grows in
the damp, loamy soil of river banks and
marshy places; but in many Southern
cities it has been planted as a lovely
streetside ornament. (See page 33.)

Its leaves are heavy and shiny. They
feel almost like polished leather and
gleam brightly in the sun. Its flowers
are huge, creamy white or light pink,
and grow on the tree almost as profusely
as roses on a rosebush. When they are
in full bloom, they perfume the air all
around with a heavy fragrance.

Other trees of the magnolia family,
all with similar characteristics of leaves
and flowers, are the umbrella tree, the
cucumber tree, and the sweet bay. The

TAPPED TREE

first two are found in the woods of
the Allegheny Mountain area, from
Maryland and West Virginia south-
ward. The sweet bay grows along the
coastline from Florida as far north as
Boston. Generally, all three are referred
to as magnolias.

The tulip tree, sometimes called the
yellow poplar, is also of the magnolia
family. It is the family’s giant big
brother. Some specimens grow from 90
to 120 feet tall. Its flowers are shaped
like tulips, which give this tree its name.

The flowering dogwood is one of
America’s most spectacular trees. Early
in the spring, even before such early-
budding trees as the maples begin to
green up, the dogwood suddenly bursts
out in a blaze of glorious color. There
are two kinds, white and pink. The
White is the wild tree; the pink is a cul-
tivated variety. But the two colors are
so frequently interspersed that they cre-
ate a delightful pattern on the otherwise
bare spring hillsides. (See page 33.)

SUGAR MAPLE

SYCAMORE

SWEET GUM

HAW

DOGWOOD

JUDAS TREE

SWEET BAY

STAMINATE

Birches, which grow in the cooler
parts of the Northern Hemisphere,
have attractive foliage, slender, tas-
sel-like catkins which bear pollen,
and a fine-grained hard wood used
for furniture.

The ash has multiple leaves, like the
locust, and winged seeds like the maple.
But the seeds of the ash have only a
single wing while maple seeds have two.
Like many trees, the several kinds of
ash are named for colors — white,
black, blue, red, and green. Yet, like the
maples, it is difficult for anyone except
an expert to tell them apart.

and in the fall they turn a brilliant red,
appearing almost as flashing spurts of
flame in the midst of the thick woods.

The sassafras was called green stick
by the Indians because of its bright
green twigs. The Indians also liked to
chew the tender, aromatic bark of the
twigs, just as children living in the coun-
try do today. An old-time folk remedy,
sassafras tea, is made from the roots.
Many rural doctors still prescribe it as
an all-around tonic.

The black gum, also called sour gum
and tupelo, is not related to the sweet
gum. Instead, it belongs to the dogwood
family. Only about half as tall as the
sweet gum, its trunk grows straight up,
hardly varying in circumference from
bottom to near the top. Its branches
and twigs jut out almost horizontally.
Its oval leaves are smooth and shiny,

0 x

THE FRUIT TREES

In song and legend, as well as in fact,
the apple is the most famous and most
numerous of all our fruit trees. Apples
were the first trees brought to America
by the original settlers, and the first trees
carried westward in covered wagons by
the pioneers.

According to Biblical legend, an
apple was the fruit used by Satan to
tempt Eve in the Garden of Eden. King
Solomon sang: “Comfort me with ap-
ples.” When an apple fell from a tree
and hit Sir Isaac Newton on the head,
it started in his mind a trend of thought
that resulted in the laws of gravitation.

One of the most colorful folk-charac-
ters of early American history was
Johnny Appleseed, a kindly old man
who is said to have wandered up and
down the Ohio Valley planting apple
trees wherever he went. The curious
thing is, though, that when seeds from
even the finest varieties of apples such
as Delicious, Baldwin, and Rome
Beauty are planted, they yield small,
sour fruit that is not very good to eat.
Apple trees must be grafted to produce
good fruit; that is, they must be repro-
duced through the wood instead of the
seed. So maybe Johnny Appleseed
planted cuttings instead of seeds.

Apple trees are very susceptible to
disease, and must be constantly sprayed
to keep yielding good fruit. Only young
trees produce choice fruit, and, in com-
mercial orchards, the older trees are cut
down to make room for new ones. But
the old patriarch trees, twisted and
gnarled, bursting with delicate pink
blossoms in the springtime, are the favo-

rite decoration of almost every rural
farmyard.

Cherries, peaches, and pears are
America’s next most popular fruits.
Like the apple, they probably origi-
nated somewhere in the Near East. Also
like the apple, they produce blossoms
in the spring that are as pleasing to the
eye as their fruits are delicious to the
taste.

Cherry wood is considered one of the
finest of all materials for furniture. It is
smooth, rich in color, finely grained;
and its beauty improves with age. Wild
cherry grows profusely in woods east
of the Mississippi.

The persimmon is a peculiar wild
fruit tree that flourishes from the middle
South to Florida. It is invariably asso-
ciated with the possum, because when
the fruit is ripe it is that funny little
animal’s favorite delicacy. People who
like to eat possum meat usually know
where to find some if there are persim-
mon trees around. Persimmon fruits
look like small green apples; but until
they have been touched with frost, be-
ware of biting into one! It contains
a powerful astringent acid that will
pucker up your mouth as painfully as
if you chewed a piece of alum.

But the first frost ripens the persim-
mon, and then it is one of the most
delicious fruits that grows. Its scientific
name, Diospyros, means “food of the
gods.” Amazingly enough, the persim-
mon tree is a distant relative of the
tropical ebony.

The citrus fruits — orange, lemon,
lime, and grapefruit — are grown
chiefly in Florida and California, for
the trees cannot withstand heavy frost.

ORANGE

Like most American fruit trees, the
original species came from the Middle
East and were imported into this coun-
try by way of Spain and the West Indies.
In fact, Columbus brought the first
oranges and lemons to the New World.
While orange juice will be found on
. almost every American breakfast table,
lemons and limes are used mostly for
making cool summer drinks and for
flavoring desserts. Grapefruits have
nothing in common with grapes except
that they grow in clusters on the tree.
One tree often produces as much as half
a ton of fruit at one time.

LEMON

TANGERINE

GRAPEFRUIT

APPLE

A little more than a hundred years
ago, the lime made naval history. Crews
of British ships, sailing on long voyages
and living on meat and biscuits, fre-
quently developed a killing disease
known as scurvy. The British didn’t
know it at the time, but scurvy is caused
by vitamin deficiency. Then, by a happy
accident, it was discovered that when
lime juice was introduced into the
sailor’s diet, the scurvy disappeared.
And so a daily ration of lime juice was
thereafter served to every British sea-
man. To this day, British sailors are
sometimes referred to as “Limeys,”

The avocado is a typically American
tropical fruit that was first cultivated
and eaten by the Aztec Indians. Un-
like other fruits, it cannot be cooked,
canned, or otherwise preserved. It must
be eaten fresh, usually in a salad.

You can make an interesting experi-
ment with the large plum-size seed of
the avocado. If you place the seed in a
jar of water, it will soon put out roots
and a small delicate stem. In a few
weeks, the stem will develop leaves. Pot
it, and after several months you will
have a handsome little tropical tree, a
foot or more high, as an ornament for

your kitchen window. Of course, if you
live north of southern California or Flo-
rida you cannot plant it outdoors.

THE NUT TREES ft

Walnuts and hickories, the two most
common American nut trees are as
valuable for their fine woods as for their
delicious fruits. Hard, smooth-grained,
and nearly splinterless, the wood of the
walnut has always been a great favorite
for fine cabinet work. Hickory, tough,
light and elastic, usually finds its ulti-
mate form in handles for tools. When
burned, hickory wood gives off a light,

PISTILLATE

FLOWERS

HICKORY

flavorful smoke and is used in the South
for curing hams and other meats.

The meat of walnuts and hickory
nuts is rich in calories and proteins. One
of the great old-time outdoor sports,
that most children miss in this day of
packaged food, is the fun of going out
into the woods and gathering up sack-
fuls of these goodies for the family
table.

The husk of the butternut, a type of
walnut, was used by pioneer families to
make a yellowish-brown dye for color-
ing homespun cloth. During the Ameri-
can Civil War, Confederate soldiers
were often called “Butternuts” because
their home-made uniforms were dyed
with this material.

The pecan, which grows wild in the
woods of the Deep South, is perhaps the
only edible American nut that is culti-
vated in orchards. In Georgia and
Texas, pecan groves are often as large
as orange groves. The pecan is the
only nut that provides American farm-
ers with a multi-million dollar industry.

The cashew (its name is an English
corruption of the French word acajou )
is an evergreen tree that is native to

Central and South America. Today,
however, it is chiefly grown in India and
Africa. A small tree, between 20 and
40 feet tall, with widely spreading
branches, it produces a fruit that re-
sembles an apple in both shape and
taste. Appended to the fruit, almost as
though Nature did it as an afterthought,
is the familiar cashew nut which is so
delicious when freshly roasted.

The Brazil nut, which is sometimes
called the castanea or para nut, is the
fruit of a giant hardwood tree that
grows wild in the Amazon jungle. It has
huge, foot-long leaves and clusters of
delicate cream-colored flowers.

The fruit is a hard shell, about the
size of a cantaloupe, inside of which are
a dozen or more triangular-shaped nuts.
The fruits are collected by Brazilian
Indians, and shipped mostly to the
United States. The meat of the nut is
oily and rich, and — besides being
eaten — is sometimes pressed into oil
that is used for lubricating watches and
other delicate machinery.

The horsechestnut is a big, handsome
tree which people in the Midwest plant
around their homes for shade. The

BLACK WALNUT

CASHEW

BUCKEYE

BRAZIL NUT

HAZEL NUT

leaves grow in clusters of five or seven,
and spread out like the fingers of an
open hand.

The large nuts, which are encased in
thorny burrs, are dark brown with a
white spot at the base, which makes
them resemble the eye of a deer. This
fact gives the buckeye, a variety of
horsechestnut, its name. To reverse this
naming process, the state of Ohio is
called the Buckeye State because so
many of these handsome trees abound
in Ohio woods and fields. The fruit of
the buckeye and horsechestnut looks as
though it should be good to eat, but it

forced off by the spring’s new crop. The
silvery bark and the golden leaves make
one of Nature’s prettiest pictures as they
gleam like a huge jewel in the winter
woods.

is bitter and very distasteful. “It’s only
good enough for horses,” the pioneers
used to say; and, of course, that is how
it got its name.

The beech is one of the most beauti-
ful trees in the American woods. Tall
and stately, it has a heavy bole and
strong, sturdy limbs. Its bark is thin
and smooth, and bright silver in color.
The leaves, perhaps the most perfectly
shaped of those on any tree, glisten a
bright, sleek green in the sun. In winter,
they turn from green to gold, and most
of them stay on the tree until they are

The beech doesn’t seem to mind
growing in the shade, and so it manages
to crowd out other trees that need direct
sunlight more.

Beechnuts, though very small, are
savory and delicious. But squirrels,
birds, deer, and other wild woodland
creatures enjoy them as much as man
does — and these animals generally get
first choice.

Beech wood, reddish brown, smooth-
grained, and extremely hard and du-
rable, is used chiefly for furniture and
wooden bowls.

SOME UNUSUAL AMERICAN TREES.

was imported from that country in the hope of using it as
food for American silkworms. The silkworms did not like the
ailanthus but the ailanthus liked America, and it began
growing and spreading like a weed in moist locations. It
thrives in the hard-packed cement city yards and vacant
lots, undisturbed by dirt, smoke and insects. The leaves are
compound and fernlike. They have from 1 5-30 leaflets with
a scent gland at the base which, when crushed, gives off
an offensive odor. The seeds, shaped like an airplane pro-
peller, sail merrily over backyard fences to swell the ailan-
thus population next door.

The saguaro / a cactus-like desert tree, looks like a giant
hand with extended fingers because of its tall, often 50 feet
high, trunk and up-curving branches. It is called by some
people the candelabra tree, because its form also suggests
a huge candlestick. Having thorny spines instead of leaves,
the chlorophyll is contained in its tough skin covering.

The eucalyptus , a native tree of Australia, has been trans-
planted to California where it thrives like a giant weed.
A big eucalyptus looks something like an immense, fluffy
cone of cotton candy. Its leaves, long and thin like the
willows, are very aromatic and are pressed to extract euca-
lyptus oil , a soothing medication for irritated nose and
throat. The branches droop down and the bark is constantly
peeling. Next to the sequoia and Douglas fir, the eucalyptus,
which often grows to 200 feet high, is one of the tallest
trees that grows in America.

The Joshua tree , related to the palms and another product
of the desert, has been calle.d the “ugliest tree in the world.”
It grows to a height of 20 to 30 feet. Its trunk and branches
are covered with a heavy shaggy bark. The Joshua pro-
duces lovely ivory-white blossoms as if to say to the world,
“I can’t be all bad.”

The mesquite , abundant in the arid regions of the South
west, where any other vegetation would shrivel up and die,
produces a vast quantity of pods which, when green, are
good fodder for cattle. The leaves are divided into paired
leaflets and the nectar of the greenish-yellow flower is a
source of honey. A fast-growing, hardy tree, mesquite
spreads like wildfire, killing grass as it goes. Ranchers have
a constant battle to bulldoze away new growths of mesquite
to keep it from ruining their pasture land.

The Monterey cypress has the most restricted natural habitat of
any tree in the world. It grows only in an area somewhat less than
two miles long and not much more than 150 yards wide near
Monterey, California. This curious, twisted tree has been trans-
planted into other parts of California and the United States,
but it soon died of fungus growths and other tree diseases.

The Kentucky coffee tree , so named because in pio-
neer days the settlers of that region made a bitter
lasting drink from the seeds, is a distant relative of
the locust. It has a similar, but thicker fruit Than the
honey locust and the same kind of fern-like leaf for-
mations and seed pods.

Trees of the Tropics

By far the greatest variety of trees,
and the strangest ones too, is found in
the lush, warm tropical climate. In the
jungles of South America, Africa, and
Asia, the torrential rains and the broil-
ing sun combine to create a vast natural
greenhouse in which all sorts of vege-
tation wage an eternal fight with each
other in a mad scramble for survival.
The tall trees, because they can reach
their heads up out of the timeless twi-
light of the jungle floor, are always the
winners.

On the dry deserts and broad plains
of equatorial Africa, trees take on many
unusual forms in Nature’s endless effort
to adapt them to their surroundings.

Of all tropical trees, the most plenti-
ful and most important commercially
is the coconut palm. Although it grows
all around the world, in a tropical belt
from the West Indies to the East Indies,
this graceful tree plays its most impor-
.jiL tant role as the key to the economy of
the islands of the South Pacific.

"In these islands, it furnishes the na-
tive with nearly all the necessities of
%$Lving. Its trunk gives him wood for his
houses and his canoes. He weaves its
broad leaves into roofing material and
mats for his floors. Its fruit is his main
source of vegetable food, and the hard,
brown coconut shells serve him as ladles
and dishes. But, most significant of all,
the coconut palm is the islands’ chief
source of export revenue.

The meat of the coconut is rich in
vegetable oil. When sun-dried for ship-
ment, it is known commercially as
copra, from the Malay word koppara,

.v,

■

meaning coconut. The United States
alone imports hundreds of tons of copra
each year as a base for margarine, cook-
ing oils, and soap products.

The date palm is the classic tree that
adorns the oases of the Saraha Desert.
Wherever a spring of water wells up
in the desert wastes, there you will find
a grove of date palms. The wealth of an
Arab who lives on an oasis is judged
not by the amount of land he owns but
by the number of his palm trees.

Originally a native of Africa, the
date palm was introduced in ancient
times into Asia and the southern Euro-
pean countries bordering on the Medi-
terranean Sea. It was brought to
California many years ago by mission-
aries, where it has become an important
fruit crop.

The banana is not a true tree at all,
but rather a tree-like plant that grows
to small-tree size. It is the main staple
of food for many tribes of the African
jungle, and is grown commercially in
West Africa, Central and South Amer-
ica, and the West Indies.

The breadfruit, another of the chief
food items of the South Sea islands that
come from trees, tastes like fresh bread
when it is roasted in its shell.

The famous “mutiny on the Bounty”
was directly caused by breadfruit trees.
Captain Bligh and his ship had been
dispatched to Tahiti to collect bread-
fruit seedlings. His mission was to take
them to the English colonies in the West
Indies for transplanting. On the way,
however, water supplies on the Bounty
began to run low. In order to water his

precious seedlings, Bligh denied water
to the crew. This caused the crew to
mutiny, set Captain Bligh and most of
his officers adrift in an open boat, and
eventually establish a colony of their
own on remote Pitcairn Island.

The traveler’s tree, which grows on
the dry plains of central Africa is as
prettily shaped as a palm-leaf fan. A
hole bored in its trunk at the base of
the fan will give up a pint or more of
clear, fresh water. This exotic-looking
tree, which can be discerned for long
distances on the level plain, has thus
saved many a traveler from dying of
thirst on the arid veldt. And this, of
course, is how it got its name.

Without doubt, the strangest-looking
tree in the world is the baobab, a native
of Africa. A native legend says that a
giant child of the gods once pulled up
a tree by the roots and then stuck it
back into the ground upside down. This
is exactly what the baobab looks like.
The entire trunk of this weird tree is
a water tank. It will keep a thousand
gallons or more of water fresh and
sweet for several months.

Although the attempt at transplant-
ing the breadfruit tree from the East
Indies to the West Indies was a failure,
the transposition of the rubber tree —
the other way around — was almost
too much of a success.

The rubber tree is a native of the
Amazon valley. Its seedlings were
shipped to Ceylon, Sumatra, and Ma-
laya in the 1880’s. There, in completely
strange ground, it thrived much better
than it had ever done in South America.
Today, most of the world’s rubber
comes from the East Indies.

The sapodilla, which grows in Guate-
mala, is the source of chicle, the basic
ingredient of chewing gum. These trees
grow wild in the jungle rather than on
plantations. Indians roam at random
through the forest and tap the trees
wherever they find them. Then they
take the solidified sap downstream to
trading posts by canoe. Oddly enough,
the wood of the sapodilla is highly
prized as extremely hard and durable
timber.

The world’s three most popular bev-
erages — coffee, tea, and cocoa — are
the products of trees, all of which grow
in the tropics.

Originally a native of Africa, coffee
trees have been planted throughout
the Near East as well as in Central and
South America. Since too much sun is
harmful to the berries, coffee trees are
grown in the shade of taller trees and
carefully nurtured. Caffeine, an essen-
tial chemical ingredient found in coffee,
is also used in making cola drinks. Al-
though not as common as the drink
it produces, the heavy and smoothly-
grained wood of the coffee tree — is
used to make fine furniture.

The tea tree, sometimes no taller
than a shrub, grows chiefly in China
and India. Tea was one of the great
luxuries in Colonial America. When the
British put a tax upon it, the people of
Boston staged the notorious Boston Tea
Party, in which several shipments of tea
were dumped into Boston Harbor as a
protest. This was one of the historic
events that led to the Revolutionary
War.

The next time you drink a cup of
hot chocolate or eat a chocolate bar, re-

BREADFRUIT

The Medicine Trees

We have seen that the early settlers
in America made some of their medi-
cine from trees — the bark of the tooth-
ache tree and the roots of the sassafras
for example. Two other trees native to

the United States are the sources of
modern medicinal products.

The witch hazel is only a shrub in
the Northeast, but in the southern
mountains it attains the height of a fair-

COCONUT

PALM

member that it came from the fruit of a
beautiful tropical tree. The cocoa tree
is another prime example of successful
transplantation. It originally grew in
Central America. Many years ago, seed-
lings were introduced into the west

DATE PALM

coast countries of Africa. There it
flourished even better than it had ever
done in its native land. Today, most of
the world’s cocoa comes from Africa.
The biggest single exporter is the new
Republic of Ghana.

sized tree. Its fruits are tough, paper-
like containers, each of which holds
two little oval-shaped seeds. At the first
touch of frost in the fall, these fruits
explode like miniature cannons, shoot-
ing the seeds out into the air twenty
feet or more away. A soothing prepara-
tion, distilled from witch hazel bark, is
sold in all drugstores for mosquito bites,
and minor skin irritations.

The cascara buckthorn grows in
western Oregon and Washington and
nowhere else in the world. A small tree,
it is found around the edges of the great
forests of Douglas fir. The bark is
boiled down to make a commercial lax-
ative medicine called cascara. Stripping

the bark unfortunately kills the tree; but
the cascara buckthorn grows quickly
and prolifically, and there is always a
plentiful supply.

A deadly poison is the sap of the
curare tree, a native of Brazil. Indians
tip their arrows in this potent juice or
in a gummy resin made from the seeds
and can thus kill game or human ene-
mies upon contact. A drug made from
curare is used in medicine for control-
ling muscular spasms.

Two other South American trees
yield drugs that have saved many lives
and done wonders to control pain.

The leaves of the coca tree produce
cocaine, a blessing to anyone who has

COCA

WITCH HAZEL

CINCHONA

CASCARA

BANANA

ever had to have a tooth drilled or
pulled. The bark of the cinchona tree
is refined to make quinine, a specific
cure for malaria. Until quinine was dis-
covered, malaria annually killed mil-
lions of people in tropical countries.

Another tree that was transplanted
from South America to the East Indies,
cinchona thrived so well in its new sur-
roundings that the islands of Indonesia
now produce practically all of the
world’s quinine supply.

Some Historic Trees

A number of individual trees have
become famous in American history.
One of these was Connecticut’s Charter
Oak.

In 1687, King James II wished to
take away the charter of the Connecti-
cut Colony. He therefore sent Sir Ed-
mund Andros to Hartford, the colonial
capital, to get the charter and assume
control of the government. Members of
the Connecticut council, however, did
not wish to give up their rights, and
so they hid the charter in the hollow
trunk of an old oak. This venerable
tree blew down during a windstorm on
August 21, 1856. At the time of its
destruction, it was reputed to be nearly
1 ,000 years old.

When General George Washington
assumed command of the Colonial
Army, in Cambridge, Mass., in 1775,
the ceremony took place under a large
elm tree which later became famous as
the Cambridge Elm. The old tree lived
until 1923. Its growth rings gave its age
as 204 years.

Long years after the mountains of
the southeastern United States had been
settled, a farmer in Tennessee found an
old beech tree with this inscription
carved into the smooth bark of the
trunk:

D. BOON
CILLED A BAR
ON THIS TREE
IN THE YEAR 1760.

Obviously, Dan’l Boone could hunt
a lot better than he could spell.

Another beech that figured in an
early forest tragedy was found a great
many years ago in the mountains of
West Virginia. At the base of the tree
lay the skeleton of a man, and the
rusted remains of a knife and a gun.
This verse was carved on the tree:

STRANGE IS MY NAME
AND l’M ON STRANGE GROUND
AND STRANGE IT IS THAT I GAN’t
BE FOUND.

In honor of this unknown pioneer,
the little stream that flowed nearby was
named Strange Creek.

ACTIVITIES:

There are quite a number of things you can do that
will give you lots of fun and at the same time will
enable you to study and compare trees more carefully.
There are many ways to preserve leaves; you can
press them or reproduce them as leaf prints or in
plaster casts. You can preserve the flowers, cone
seeds and winter twigs, or you can buy and grow
your own trees on the window sill.

To make a SPATTER PRINT first spread a large
piece of paper over your table for protection.
Pin a pressed leaf to a sheet of construction
paper. Dip an old toothbrush in a dish with
poster paint. Take a stick and scrape it through
the brush toward you. This will make the bristles
of the brush snap back, away from you, and
spatter the paint around the leaf. After remov-
ing the leaf, a perfect print of it remains on the
paper.

To make a LEAF SKELETON which you can mount
in a scrap book and preserve, take a fresh,
green leaf and put it on a “pounding board.”
(A piece of old carpet or floor mat on top of a
plank will do the trick.)

poster

paint

SPATTER

LEAF SKELETON

Pound gently with an old hair or shoebrush
until all fleshiness is pounded away. (Use a
brush with animal bristles, as synthetic fibers
are too harsh.) Hold the leaf, top side up,
firmly with one hand in place. After a short
while, only the beautiful network of veins will
remain.

It is not too difficult to start a collection of
tree seeds, label them and store them in a
collection box. But it is even more fun to get
the fresh seeds to grow into little trees. Put
a layer of pebbles into a flower pot or a
glass tank and add sandy soil to within an
inch of the top, pressing the soil firmly
down. Put your seeds in, cover them slightly
with soil and press down again.

Place your pot on the window sill and water
with a bulb spray whenever the soil feels
dry. Keep it moist, but never really wet.
Protect the top of your tree nursery with a
pane of glass or a newspaper which you
will remove when the seeds start to sprout.

COLLECTION
OF WINTER TWIGS

Leaves that you want to mount in your scrap book
have to be carefully dried out first. Place each indi-
vidual leaf between sheets of a folded newspaper.
Put some more folded paper on top and underneath
the one you use for pressing the leaf and put a weight
or heavy books on top of the pile. Keep them this way
until the leaf is dried out and pressed flat. Then mount
them in your book with identification labels.

COLLECTION
OF TREE SEEDS

5001 DINOSAURS

5002 WEATHER

5004 ROCKS & MINERALS

5007 INSECTS

5008 REPTILES

5009 BIRDS

5011 BEGINNING SCIENCE

5013 THE HUMAN BODY

5014 SEA SHELLS
5016 THE MICROSCOPE

5021 CHEMISTRY

5022 HORSES

5024 PRIMITIVE MAN
5031 WILD FLOWERS

5032 DOGS

5033 PREHISTORIC MAMMALS

5034 SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS
5042 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
5046 MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM
5053 TREES

5055 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS

5064 STARS

5065 AIRPLANES AND THE STORY
OF FLIGHT

5066 FISH

5069 TRAINS AND SHIPS

5070 ECOLOGY
AND OTHER TITLES

Produced and approved by noted authorities, these
books answer the questions most often asked about
science, nature and history. They are presented in a
clear, readable style, and contain many colorful and
instructive illustrations. Readers will want to explore
each of these fascinating subjects and collect these
volumes as an authentic, ready-reference, basic library.

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